Tuesday, April 29, 2008

Shor's Algorithm in Danger?

I wasn't going to post about this, planning to just sort of let it slide, but it has appeared on at least one crypto mailing list, and I feel like someone should address it before the meme that Shor's algorithm has been discredited takes root. So, here goes...

A paper titled Operator Imprecision and Scaling of Shor's Algorithm, by Hill and Viamontes, appeared on the arXiv about ten days ago. Naturally, I snapped it up and quickly read it. Here's what I think. Take it with an entire shaker full of salt...

If you want to cut to the chase and keep your workload down, there's a really good reason to postpone reading the paper: it hasn't been refereed yet. If you work in the area, you might care enough to read it anyway (and might even get asked to referee), if you don't, the simplest form of triage is to wait and see what expert opinion says, then decide whether you want to agree with the experts or not :-).

Anyway, in one sentence, my position on Shor's algorithm:


  • There are very good reasons for taking a Missouri "show me" attitude toward Shor's algorithm, but this paper probably does not change the arguments, and a variety of people much smarter than me have analyzed the algorithm in more detail and are pretty convinced it's going to work with acceptable scaling.


And, a one-sentence summary of the paper:

  • Quantum error correction doesn't work.


To believe that Shor's algorithm can't be run in the real world, you have to believe either that the algorithm doesn't really scale, or that quantum error correction doesn't work. (Scott Aaronson reduces the argument further to, "Either the Extended Church-Turing Thesis is false, or quantum mechanics must be modified, or the factoring problem is solvable in classical polynomial time." Personally, I think he's leaving out important real-world cheats, such as "Shor has a bug" and "There was a gotcha in QEC that no one had spotted" and "Noise turned out to be more of a problem than we thought". But, in theory, he's right, and he's a theorist, so there you go :-).)

Taking the concerns in order, Shor first:

I'm not a mathematician, cryptographer, theoretical computer scientist, or physicist; I'm a computer systems guy who happens to be working in quantum computing. I have written a series of papers (including my Ph.D. thesis) on how to implement Shor's algorithm, though I am far from satisfied with the depth of my understanding of the interaction of the algorithm with either noise or systematic errors. See, for example,
my thesis or some of
my
other
papers.

My reasoning for studying Shor's algorithm is the following: I am interested in quantum computer architectures, and I need a well-defined workload. Shor's is the most cleanly defined and potentially important (not to mention famous) of the existing algorithms. Moreover, Shor uses two very important building blocks, arithmetic and the quantum Fourier transform (QFT), that are likely to prove generally valuable, so studying their behavior is useful. I consider myself to have given "provisional assent" to the hypothesis that Shor's algorithm works with reasonable scalability, subject to the caveats in my thesis and other papers.

There have been a number of papers addressing the scalability of Shor's algorithm, and unfortunately, this paper doesn't really seem to discuss any of the other arguments, as presented by Barenco, Fowler, and others. The paper references a few of them, but doesn't really say why their analysis is different from those papers, so it's impossible to thoroughly assess if the authors understand what the arguments are, pro and con.

The success probability of Shor's algorithm is believed to decline with the length of the number being factored. The Barenco and Fowler papers arrive at different conclusions on the scalability of Shor, though both are some variant of sub-exponential (logarithmic or polynomial, actually, if memory serves, though it's been a while since I read the papers). They start from different assumptions about the mathematical relationships of, essentially, the parameters to the algorithm. The focus of both those papers is the behavior of the system with perfect gates but an incompletely-run QFT, the "approximate QFT", which is considered to be the preferred form,
avoiding exponentially-precise gates. The results seem related to the general problem of imperfections and Shor's algorithm, though.

Anyway, on to the paper:

I have read it, but not studied it in major detail yet. I don't know either of the authors personally, but the second author has done good work; he is certainly no dummy.

The argument is pretty straightforward, arguably naive. That doesn't mean it's wrong, but there are a lot of assumptions and simplifications in the work, and they need to be examined carefully.

Essentially, what they have done is a simple simulation of an imperfect inverter and extrapolated from that to the performance of a complete system. They suggest that logical states drift linearly from the desired state, given a certain over-rotation of the physical gates. That is inherently plausible, but I think they have under-estimated the ability of quantum error correction (QEC) to suppress those errors, and they haven't accounted for ordinary noise.
(One would hope that the first author understands the impact of measurement on the system, but it's not clear from the rather terse paper that he does.)

See Sec. 2.3.5 (p. 73 or 56, depending on which numbering you're looking at) of my thesis:
http://arxiv.org/abs/quant-ph/0607065/

I think, if the argument in my thesis is right (which is certainly open to question), that systematic over-rotation is suppressed to O(sin^2(epsilon)) where epsilon is the amount over-rotated by all of the gates.

So, a 1% error in rotation (Pi+2*Pi/100 rotation) would result in
Pi+2*Pi/10000 logical rotation, I think. Then the *second* level of QEC would result in 10^-8 logical error, if I've done it right -- the double-exponential suppression.

A physical over-rotation of 10^-3, then, would be 10^-12 with two layers, if I did that right. Thus, based on this analysis, QEC is capable of suppressing errors quite well.

The argument in my thesis is probably naive, but QEC has a *lot* of work behind it; if you are interested, there are tons of references in my thesis and elsewhere. Moreover, last December there was an entire conference dedicated to the topic.


Returning to Shor:

It's not possible to simulate the system for large enough cases to really confirm the validity of the derived expressions, and we're still a number of years from a system large enough to experimentally prove or disprove the proposition. Personally, I don't think the analysis considering noise, systemic errors, and the approximate QFT is complete yet. Most of the theoreticians are pretty satisfied, but we all know about the difference between theory and practice.


In summary, the paper in question (arXiv:0804.3076) would have broad implications for the ability of quantum computers to maintain state accurately enough to provide real-world acceleration over classical computers. It's a very legitimate concern, which gets raised occasionally by very smart people, and usually ends in a stalemate with the preponderance of quantum information people on the side of "don't worry, QEC works". But it's not yet clear that this paper really pushes the argument forward in either direction. The paper is also not yet refereed, and it will be interesting to see how it changes as a result of any referee's comments.

Useful references:

@Article{barenco:approx-qft,
author = {Adriano Barenco and Artur Ekert and Kalle-Antti Suominen
and P\"aivi T\"orm\"a},
title = {Approximate Quantum {Fourier} Transform and Decoherence},
journal = {Physical Review A},
year = 1996,
volume = 54,
pages = {139--146}
}

@Article{fowler04:_limited-rotation-shor,
author = {Austin G. Fowler and Lloyd C. L. Hollenberg},
title = {Scalability of {Shor's} algorithm with a limited set
of rotation gates},
journal = pra,
year = 2004,
volume = 70,
pages = 032329
}

@ARTICLE{devitt-2006-6,
author = {Simon J. Devitt and Austin G. Fowler and Lloyd C.~L. Hollenberg},
title = {Robustness of Shor's algorithm},
journal = {QUANT.INF.COMP.},
volume = {6},
pages = {616},
url = {http://www.citebase.org/abstract?id=oai:arXiv.org:quant-ph/0408081},
year = {2006}
}

(There are more, including some very early ones from before QEC was invented. Homework for the interested reader.)

Anyway, I hope this at least short-circuits any rush to burn Peter Shor in effigy. He's way too smart and sweet for that.

Thursday, April 24, 2008

Wednesday, April 09, 2008

Moore's Law: Moving the Goalposts?

This posting at NextBigFuture has a fantastic set of slides from Intel about the "long" run, up to 2029 (which will still be before I retire, even optimistically).

There is a lot of material for thought in there, but the big picture is that they are shooting for a million-fold improvement in FLOPS applied to a single problem by 2029, to about a zettaFLOPS, 10^21 FLOPS. I haven't been through the numbers yet, but that seems plausible if you postulate a 1000x improvement in VLSI density (which is around the upper bound where you're building out of individual atoms), one to two orders of magnitude improvement in clock cycle, and make up the rest in increasing parallelism. Overall, it seems to be about the upper bound postulated by deBenedictis, but a detailed check (of both) is in order.

As the article notes, communication is the big deal, all throughout the system. I refer to it as, quite directly, a problem in special relativity. Networks exist both inside and outside the chip, making the physical boundary almost meaningless. This is part of what we are researching as an "All-IP Computer" here in the Murai Lab. (Sorry, the web pages are undergoing revision right now, and you might run into some rough spots; noticeably, the All-IP project doesn't have a web page at the moment...)

At any rate, Intel seems intent on keeping the goalposts as far away as possible, and continuing to grind downfield, a few yards at a time, so that progress over years is astonishing. Leapfrogging their progress is probably impossible, but I hope to be sitting by the side of the road (to mix a few metaphors) with a road sign pointing the way to some interesting areas when they get to atomic and quantum levels...

Wednesday, April 02, 2008

New Japanese Ambassador

The Japan Times reported today that Ichiro Fujisaki has been appointed to be the new ambassador from Japan to the United States, taking over from Ryozo Kato, who has been there six years.

At a faculty party this evening, I chatted with two faculty members who know Fujisaki-san personally. I'm told that he is a Keio graduate. Although he seems to (currently) have a low profile in the press, his resume is impressive, and includes time in Geneva and Washington since joining the Foreign Ministry in 1969.

Ion Trap Toffoli Gate

Whoo-hoo, an interesting looking paper from Reiner Blatt's group:

Realization of the quantum Toffoli gate with trapped ions.

Tuesday, April 01, 2008

Start of the Year



The new school year effectively starts today, though classes don't start for another week.

One of the first items on the agenda: searching for new members of your "circle", if you're a student. It's the equivalent of freshman rush at many colleges, or "Rotation" at Caltech, except that it's centered on particular activities.

So this week, there will be students packing the quad, wearing American football uniforms (complete with pads), karate gi, cheerleader uniforms, kendo getups, anything you can name. There will be concerts by the many music groups, frisbees flying overhead, many fliers handed out. And, as you can see, the sailplane flying club (and the race car club and yachting club) will parade their toys around for people to ooh and aah over. (The young man holding the wing is one of my students.)

It's an exuberant time, full of the enthusiasm of youth. I love it.

In a Japanese university (and, I think, high school), there are no "tryouts" for the basketball team. Anyone can join. So, the basketball team might have a hundred members. The difference is whether you're good enough to get picked to suit up for the actual games, and, when you're at the bottom of the heap, whether you're willing to put up with the long practices (and the usual forms of senior/junior reminders that you're at the bottom, carrying bags, fetching water, etc.). Those who don't get to suit up for the games are presumably expected to be in the stands, leading organized cheers. I have no idea how you manage practice for a basketball team with a hundred members...probably "varsity", "JV", and "dregs" have separate practice sessions, I would guess.

Speaking of which, in Japan, flying gliders is a competitive sport. The Keio team this year took second in the nationals, losing out to perpetual rival Waseda. Dang. I think we won the championship last year...